India - Greece: Philosophical Dialogues Across Civilizations - IMPRI Impact And Policy Research Institute

Policy Update
Aditi Singh Kaushik

Background

Deemed as two of the most ancient civilizations, the Indian and Greek civilizations are emblematic of revered traditions that continue to inspire contemporary philosophical thought across the world. Both traditions address questions about the nature of reality, complex systems of contemporary law and myriad topics that form a rich part of their cultural heritage. In the sixth century BC, direct Greek-Indian contacts occurred in the Persian Empire, which stood on the ruins of the Assyrian Empire. It was during these years that the Indian and Greek functionaries of various kinds continued to meet each other at the Persian Court, thereby forming a new form of ‘growing multicultural milieu.’ (Evilley, 2002)

Alexander the Great and Indian Philosophers

Some scholars have revisited accounts of Alexander the Great, King of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon, meeting Indian sages. It is suggested that this meeting took place in Taxila in the spring of 326 BC. Throughout Late Antiquity and Middle Ages, ancient scholars continued to revisit this great legend of Alexander’s meeting because of its ‘oriental undertone and anecdotal character.’ The earliest record documenting this meeting contains a series of questions posed by Alexander to the Indian sages. It includes excerpts of dialogues, including one where the leader of the philosophers explains to Alexander at length their way of life. Although the encounter of Alexander and Indian philosophers is a historical fact, the contents of their dialogue, some suggest, appears to be literary fiction. (Szalc, 2011)

Dialogues on Nature of Immortality and Reality

Cross- cultural questions on the nature of reality provide us with glaring perspectives on how it was comprehended by the two civilizations. Indian philosophy distinguishes between the material and spiritual aspects of existence, where the material world is regarded as an illusion that “conceals the true nature of reality.” Greek philosophy on the other hand, or at least most parts of it, is concerned with rational inquiry and observation of the natural world. For instance, Plato’s Theory of Forms suggests that ultimate reality exists in an abstract realm , and the physical world (where we live) is merely a reflection. (Visigalli, 2016)

Immortality, too, is represented differently in prominent texts of the two civilizations. Some passages in the Upanishads, portray the self as something that forms the innermost core of ourselves and which lies beyond anything that life brings – changes, experiences and death. Immortality, therefore, “is not once and for all, but is provisional and reversible.” For the ancient Indian practitioners, the pursuit of immortality happens within the domain of ritual. Some Greek philosophers view it differently. In one of his dialogues called Timaeus, Plato asserts that man’s immortality is a given, and is planted in one’s own constitution. Attaining immortality does require rigorous intellectual exercise, says Plato. Nonetheless, it can be attained precisely because it is already there.

Chariots and their Symbolism

Early Greek and Indian culture represent shared metaphorical representations of chariots. In both traditions, chariots have been represented as vehicles of God (such as the sun), symbols of royal power and social prestige. Additionally, they have served as metaphors for the ‘person’, the ‘mind’, and the ‘way to liberation.’ Scholars have also reflected on the anatomy of chariots, and have observed that both in Greece and India, the individual shape of chariots differed regionally and in terms of usage – as racing vehicle, for royal festivals and royal procession, or means of transport for the aristocracy.

The metaphorical depiction of chariots has been a rich point of discussion in Greece and Vedic India vis-à-vis the Sun. Famously, the Sun has been conceptualised as a golden, flamed wheel, wherein the flamed wheel is the axis of the Sun God’s chariot. In Vedic hymns, the horses and the chariot of the sun are portrayed as fast and steady runners.

In Katha Upanishad, the simile of chariot and the horses have been used to depict the soul’s way to liberation/immortality. On the other hand, myriad dialogues in Greek philosophy have portrayed chariots using complex analogies. For instance, in a Platonic dialogue, the chariot imagery is portrayed by Socrates to provide a conclusion that all souls are immortal, for ‘she is the source of all motions both in herself and in others.’ (Schleiter, 2016)

Interpretations of Monism

Monism is a core tenet of Indian philosophy, particularly within Advait Vidanta. This doctrine denies the existence of duality, meaning it asserts there is no distinction between the self (Atman) and the ultimate reality (Brahman). All distinctions we perceive in the material world are illusions (maya). Similarly, Greek philosophy monistic ideas are visible in the thoughts of Eleatic School of philosophy, founded and developed by Parmenides.

This school also believes in the existence of one reality, and argues that change and plurality are mere illusions. Although we see similarity between Parmenides’ Monism and Advait Vidanta’s non-dualistic worldview, other Greek philosophers like Plato and Aristotle delved into ‘exploring multiplicity and individuation within the cosmos.’ (Singh, 2024)

Varied Perceptions of Justice

Contributions to the foundations of core tenets of justice – fairness, equality and moral righteousness, have been provided by both Indian and Greek philosophers, some of which include Kautilya and Manu in ancient India, and Plato and Aristotle in ancient Greece. Ancient Indian philosophers Kautilya and Manu’s concept of justice revolved around the principles of dharma (duty and righteousness). Kautilya’s Arthashastra, divided into fifteen books, one-fifty chapters and one-eighty topics is considered one of the finest treatises on governance and statecraft. With statecraft being the primary focus of Arthashastra, it views justice as a vital component for maintaining social order and stability. Manu, through his Manusmriti conceptualised a hierarchical and duty-based view of justice. In ancient India, justice hugely depended on an individual’s role in society and their adherence to the principles of dharma.

Greek philosophers, on the other hand, viewed justice as a social and legal construct, that they believed to have a universal application. For instance, Aristotle emphasized distributive and corrective justice that involved rectifying inequalities and restoring balance through fairness. Plato, in the Republic, conceptualised justice as a “harmonious structure, both within the individual and society, where each part performed its designated functions.” (Kumar, et.al, 2023)

Remnants of a Rich Heritage

The indelible repository of philosophical dialogues across East and West philosophical traditions has had an irrevocable influence on contemporary philosophers since time immemorial. Indian and Greek philosophical traditions continue today, thanks to the advent of globalization that has provided opportunities for cultural exchanges and accessibility to classical texts.

Although isolating philosophical positions from the socio-cultural positions in which they were formulated is not encouraged by scholars, we may still draw from these ancient traditions to address modern socio-cultural challenges in an ever-changing world.

References

Seaford, R. (Ed.). (2016). Universe and inner self in early Indian and early Greek thought. In Edinburgh University Press. Edinburgh University Press.
SZALC, A. (2011). ALEXANDER’S DIALOGUE WITH INDIAN PHILOSOPHERS: RIDDLE IN GREEK AND INDIAN TRADITION. In Commentationes [Journal-article].
Singh, A. (2024). A comparative analysis of ancient Indian and Greek philosophy: A historical perspective. International Journal of Multidisciplinary Trends, 6(11), 19–22. https://doi.org/10.22271/multi.2024.v6.i11a.495
P, S. K., Swamy, P. C., & Krishna Kumar, N. (2023). THE EVOLUTION OF JUSTICE: FROM ANCIENT GREEK AND INDIAN PHILOSOPHERS TO CONTEMPORARY LAW SYSTEMS [Journal-article]. International Research Journal of Commerce and Law, 17–18. http://ijmr.net.in
McEvilley, T. (2002). The Shape of Ancient Thought: Comparative studies in Greek and Indian philosophies. Allworth Press.

About the Contributor

Aditi Singh Kaushik is a Research Intern at IMPRI. She holds a Master’s degree in Political Science from Banaras Hindu University. Her research interest lies in understanding the evolving roles of traditional and organic intellectuals in post-colonial countries, within a Gramscian framework.

Acknowledgement: The author sincerely thanks Ms. Aasthaba Jadeja and the IMPRI team for their valuable support.

Disclaimer: All views expressed in the article belong solely to the author and not necessarily to the organisation.